by Dr. Phil Fernandes
A chapter from his doctoral dissertation
© 1997, Institute of Biblical Defense, All
Rights Reserved
Having refuted atheism and other non-theistic world views, it is now time to defend theism. The following four chapters will discuss several philosophical arguments for the existence of the God of theism. In this chapter the ontological argument for God's existence will be examined.
The ontological argument for God's existence is an attempt to prove God's existence solely from the idea or concept of God.1 It is an attempt to prove God's existence from reason alone. No appeal to the facts of experience is considered. In this way the ontological argument differs from other arguments for God's existence.
All other arguments for God's existence argue from something in existence to the existence of God. The teleological argument argues from the design in the universe to the existence of an intelligent Designer.2 The moral argument argues from the existence of moral values to the existence of the absolute moral Lawgiver.3 The cosmological argument reasons from the existence of dependent beings to the existence of a totally independent Being.4 Only the ontological argument argues from the concept of God to His existence. The ontological argument alone does not begin with the facts of experience.
The ontological argument was originated by Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109AD). Various forms of this argument has been defended throughout history by great thinkers such as Rene Descartes (1596-1650), Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). Charles Hartshorne, Norman Malcolm, and Alvin Plantinga are three twentieth century scholars who have also defended this argument.5 But, the ontological argument has also been opposed throughout history by other great thinkers such as Gaunilo (a contemporary of Anselm), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), David Hume (1711-1776), and Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).6 In short, the ontological argument has been one of the most hotly debated issues in the history of philosophy.
ANSELM OF CANTERBURY
In Anselm's work entitled Proslogium, he introduced this unique argument for God's existence. Though Anselm himself may not have been aware of the fact, he actually gave two different versions of the ontological argument.7
In Anselm's first argument, he stated that both believers and unbelievers define God as the greatest conceivable Being. Anselm reasoned that if God does not exist, then a person could conceive of a being greater than the greatest conceivable Being. A person could conceive of a being who had the same attributes as the greatest conceivable Being, but also existed. But, then this would be the greatest conceivable Being. Therefore, concluded Anselm, the greatest conceivable Being must exist.8
Another way of stating this first argument is as follows. The greatest conceivable Being would, by definition, be a being who has every possible perfection. Since Anselm held that existence is a perfection, he concluded that the greatest conceivable Being must exist.9
Anselm's second form of the ontological argument stated that God, by definition, is a Necessary Being. A Necessary Being is a being that cannot not exist. Therefore, reasoned Anselm, it is a contradiction to say that a Necessary Being does not exist. Hence, concluded Anselm, since God is a Necessary Being, He must exist.10
OBJECTIONS TO THE ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT
In Anselm's own lifetime his ontological argument was opposed by a monk named Gaunilo.11 Gaunilo's main attack on the ontological argument was found in his illustration of a perfect island. Gaunilo reasoned that we have just as much right in concluding that God exists merely from our idea of a perfect Being as we do in concluding the existence of a perfect island solely from our idea of a perfect island.12 Anselm responded by stating that the analogy between a perfect island and a perfect Being breaks down. For the idea of a perfect island does not include its existence, while the idea of a perfect Being does entail its existence.13 Anselm accused Gaunilo of not understanding what Anselm's argument was actually saying. Today, many philosophers agree that Gaunilo did in fact misunderstand Anselm's argument. 14
Still, this does not mean that Anselm's ontological argument cannot be refuted. Immanuel Kant believed that Anselm's argument was fallacious. Kant stated that the deficiency of Anselm's argument was in Anselm's view that existence is a perfection.15 The concept of God as a Being who has all perfections does not entail the existence of that Being because existence is not a perfection. Existence does not change, in any way the concept of a being, it merely posits actual existence to that being. To say that something has existence is to say that it actually exists outside the mind. The concept of a perfect Being who exists is no greater than the concept of a perfect Being who does not exist. They are both the same concept, though one has existence while the other does not. Therefore, as far as Kant was concerned, it is faulty reasoning to go from the realm of pure thought to the realm of actual existence by treating existence as one of the perfections that the most perfect Being must have.16
From Kant's time on, this has become the primary objection to the ontological argument.17 Still, many philosophers who agree with this criticism believe that it only applies to the first type of Anselm's ontological argument. They believe that Anselm's second argument remains intact despite Kant's critique. Two of these philosophers are Charles Hartshorne and Norman Malcolm.18
RESTATEMENTS OF THE ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT
Norman Malcolm defended Anselm's second type of ontological argument. Malcolm reasoned that the existence of a necessary Being can either be necessary (it cannot not exist), impossible (it cannot exist), or possible (it may or may not exist). Malcolm stated that since no one has shown the concept of a necessary Being to be contradictory (logically impossible), then the existence of a necessary Being is possible. If it is possible for a necessary Being to exist, then it must exist. It is a contradiction to say that a being which cannot not exist (a necessary Being) may or may not exist. Therefore, a necessary being must exist.19 The heart of Malcolm's argument can be stated as follows. By definition, a necessary Being cannot not exist. Therefore, a necessary Being must exist.20
However, Malcolm admits a weakness in his argument.He concedes that he is unaware of any way to prove that there is no contradiction in the concept of a necessary Being. Therefore, it is logically possible that the concept of a necessary Being is contradictory. Hence, it may be the case that it is impossible for a necessary Being to exist. Therefore, at best, Malcolm's ontological argument only shows that it is probable that a necessary Being exists. For it is always possible that someone will someday show that the concept of a necessary Being is contradictory.21
Another modern restatement of the ontological argument comes from Alvin Plantinga.22 After years of examining and critiquing the ontological argument, Plantinga proposed his own version of the argument. Though Plantinga viewed Anselm's argument as problematic, Plantinga considers his own argument as valid.23
Plantinga argued that the greatest possible Being would have to be a being that exists as the greatest possible Being in every possible world. Plantinga concludes that since the actual world is a possible world (it is not an impossible world), then the greatest possible being must exist in the actual world.24
Though Plantinga's argument appears valid, it ceases to be an ontological argument. Its premises leave the realm of pure reason by assuming the existence of the actual world.25 By definition, an ontological argument must prove God's existence from the mere concept of God. The other arguments for God's existence begin with something that actually exists and then argue to the existence of God. Plantinga's argument should be classified as a type of cosmological argument. It starts with the existence of the actual world and then argues to God's existence.26
Christian philosophers Norman Geisler and Winfried Corduan consider this the downfall of the ontological argument. For it is always logically possible that nothing exists.27 Therefore, in order for the ontological argument to work, it must start with the premise, "something exists."28 But, then it is no longer an ontological argument. It starts with actual existence, not pure thought.
CONCLUSION
An examination of Anselm's ontological argument has produced several observations. First, most philosophers believe that Immanuel Kant has successfully refuted Anselm's first argument. Second, Norman Malcolm's version of Anselm's second ontological argument leaves the realm of logical necessity since he admits he cannot prove that the concept of a necessary Being is not an impossible being. In other words, Malcom admits that it is possible that someone will someday prove that the concept of a Necessary Being involves a contradiction. Therefore, his argument, if successful, could only prove that God probably exists. And, third, Plantinga showed that the only apparent way to rescue the ontological argument is to begin with the cosmological premise that something exists. But, then the ontological argument is no longer ontological; it leaves the realm of pure reason.
Another factor should also be mentioned. Charles Hartshorne and Benedict Spinoza were mentioned earlier as proponents of the ontological argument. But they both denied the existence of a theistic God. Spinoza's God was a pantheistic God (a God who is identical to the universe).29 Hartshorne utilized the ontological argument to prove the existence of a panentheistic God (a God whose body is the world).30 Even if the ontological argument is valid (and it seems that it is not), it apparently does not reveal enough about God's nature to show us what kind of God He (or it) is.31
At best, apologists should suspend judgment on the ontological argument. At worst, it is a failure. Either way, defenders of the Christian faith should look elsewhere to provide evidence for God's existence.
5 Geisler and Corduan, 123-149.
8 Anselm, St. Anselm: Basic Writings trans. by S. N. Deane (Lasalle: Open Court Publishing, 1966), 7-8.
9 Sproul, Gerstner, and Lindsley, 102.